A brilliant follow-up to a landmark international bestseller. In this engaging successor to The Universal History of Numbers, you'll discover the entire story of the calculation of yesteryear and the computation of today. From the invention of the abacus to the creation of the binary system three centuries ago to the conceptual, scientific, and technical achievements that made the earliest computers possible, highly acclaimed author and mathematician Georges Ifrah provides an illuminating glimpse into humankind's greatest intellectual tale: the story of computing.

"Suppose every instrument could by command or by anticipation of need execute its function on its own; suppose that spindles could weave of their own accord, and plectra strike the strings of zithers by themselves; then craftsmen would have no need of hand-work, and masters have no need of slaves." -Aristotle. Called the Indiana Jones of arithmetic, Georges Ifrah embarked in 1974 on a ten-year quest to discover where numbers come from and what they say about us. His first book, the highly praised Universal History of Numbers, drew from this remarkable journey, presented the first complete account of the invention and evolution of numbers the world over-and became an international bestseller. In The Universal History of Computing, Ifrah continues his exhilarating exploration into the fascinating world of numbers. In this fun, engaging but no less learned book, he traces the development of computing from the invention of the abacus to the creation of the binary system three centuries ago to the incredible conceptual, scientific, and technical achievements that made the first modern computers possible. He shows us how various cultures, scientists, and industries across the world struggled to break free of the tedious labor of mental calculation and, as a result, he reveals the evolution of the human mind. Evoking the excitement and joy that accompanied the grand mathematical undertakings throughout history, Ifrah takes us along as he revisits a multitude of cultures, from Roman times and the Chinese Common Era to twentieth-century England and America. We meet mathematicians, visionaries, philosophers, and scholars from every corner of the world and from every period of history. We witness the dead ends and regressions in the computer's development, as well as the advances and illuminating discoveries. We learn about the births of the pocket calculator, the adding machine, the cash register, and even automata. We find out how the origins of the computer can be found in the European Renaissance, along with how World War II influenced the development of analytical calculation. And we explore such hot topics as numerical codes and the recent discovery of new kinds of number systems, such as "surreal" numbers. Adventurous and enthralling, The Universal History of Computing is an astonishing achievement that not only unravels the epic tale of computing, but also tells the compelling story of human intelligence-and how much farther we still have to go.

Part 1

Chapter 1 Historical Summary of Arithmetic, Numerical Notation, and Writing Systems

Chapter 2 From the Particular to the General: Arithmetic Leads to Algebra

Chapter 3 From Calculation to Calculus

Chapter 4 Binary Arithmetic and Other Non-decimal Systems

Part 2

Chapter 5 From Clockwork Calculator to Computer: The History of Automatic Calculation

Introduction
1 Human Calculation and Machine Calculation
2 Pre-Renaissance Obstacles to Mechanical Calculation and the Beginnings of the Breakthrough
3 The Calculating Machine
4 The Keyboard Comes on the Scene. From Adding Machine to Cash Register
5 From Mechanisation of Simple Arithmetic to Automatic Arithmetic on an Industrial Scale
6 Analogue Computation. Origins and Development
7 The Contribution of Automata
8 The Development of Punched-tape Solutions
9 Charles Babbage, his Analytical Engine, and his Followers
10 Developments in Electromechanical Calculating Machines
11 The Electronic Revolution
12 Fully Programmed Machines
13 On the Road to the Computer: Recapitulation
14 The Contribution of the Mathematical Logicians
15 The Advent of Set Theory
16 The Contribution of Alan Turing
17 Further Progress Towards the Computer with John von Neumann
18 The First Generation of True Computers
19 The Pocket Calculator

Chapter 6 What is a Computer?

Part 3

Chapter 7 Information, the New Universal Dimension

Conclusion: Intelligence, Science, and the Future of Mankind
List of Abbreviations
Bibliography
Index